书城政治人的安全与联合国
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第23章 『人的安全』问题的出现(7)

注释:

【1】 Commission on Global Governance,Our Global Neighborhood(Oxford:Oxford University Press,1995),79 .

【2】 Juan Somavía,People’s Security:Globalizing Social Progress(n.p .,1999),iv .

【3】 Boutros Boutros-Ghali,An Agenda for Peace— Preventive Diplomacy,Peace-making and Peace-keeping:Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to the statement a-dopted by the Summit Meeting of the Security Council on 31 January,1992(General As-sembly document A/47/277 and Security Council document S/24111),17 June 1992,para .3 .

【4】 Juan Somavía,“People’s Security:From Latin America to the United Nations,”in Somavía,People’s Security,3 .索玛维亚大使是1995年3月在哥本哈根举行的世界社会高峰会议的主席。

【5】第一次在国际文件中使用这个概念的是联合国开发计划署。UNDP,Human Development Report 1994:New Dimensions of Human Security(New York:United Na-tions,1994).

【6】 Ibid .

【7】 Commission on Human Security,Human Security Now .

【8】 ICISS,The Responsibility to Protect(Ottawa:International Development Re-search Centre,2001).

【9】 Thomas G .Weiss,Tatiana Carayannis,Louis Emmerij,and Richard Jolly,UN Voices:The Struggle for Development and Social Justice(Bloomington:Indiana University Press,2005),Chapter7 .

【10】随着时间流逝,这一问题在其他领域中也得到了体现,环境与安全、健康与安全被视为可持续发展和人类安全的一部分。

【11】我们要为此感谢理查德·乔利,他于1994年率先在联合国开发计划署的《人类发展报告》中的阐述引起了我们对本问题的关注。

【12】一年一度的全球人类发展报告都伴随着大量的国家报告问世。自成立以来,已经有375份国家和次国家发展报告刊登在135个国家与10个地区。See UNDP,“Human Development Reports:Measuring Development and Influencing Policy,”available online at:http://www.undp.org/dpa/publications/ffNHDRe101201.pdf,14 November 2004.

【13】 See UNDP,Human Development Report 1990:Concept and Measurement of Human Development(New York:United Nations Development Programme,1990),11-13 .

【14】 Ibid .,10 .

【15】 Mahbub ul Haq,Reflectionson Human Development(Oxford:Oxford Universi-ty Press,1995),58 .

【16】 Keith Grinffin and Terry McKinley,Towards a Human Development Strategy(New York:United Nations Development Programme,1993),3 .

【17】 UNDP,Human Development Report 1993:People’s Participation(New York:United Nations Development Programme,1993),1-2 .

【18】 UNDP,Human Development Report 1994:New Dimensions of Human Security(New York:United Nations Development Programme,1994).

【19】 Ibid .,23 .

【20】 Ibid .,iii .有意思的是,尽管这篇报告在提要中将重新定义安全视做文章的重点,但这一话题在正文中却没有得到展开。

【21】 Ibid .,31 .这种情绪反映了联合国机构对妇女的人身伤害和组织的暴力问题的日益重视。See also“Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Develop-ment”(General Assembly document A/CONF .171/13),18 October 1994,available online at:ht-tp://www .un .org/popin/icpd/conference/offeng/poa.html;and Report of the World Summit for Social Development(General Assembly document A/CONF .166 .9),19 April 1995,available online at:http://www.un.org/documents/ga/conf166/aconf166-9.htm.

【22】 Commission on Global Governance,Our Global Neighborhood(Oxford:Oxford University Press,1995),79 .

【23】这次会议由经济和社会理事会发起,该组织曾发起一个关于社会发展的首脑会议,得到了1992年12月16日联合国大会第47/92号决议的支持,在1994年联合国开发计划署人类发展报告中被称做“社会问题峰会议程”。

【24】许多提议也出现在马哈伯·乌尔·哈克(Mahbub ul Haq)的著作《人类发展反思》中,第85—92页。

【25】 UNDP,Human Development Report 1994:New Dimensions of Human Security,60 .

【26】 Ibid .,77 .

【27】 General A ssembly resolution 47/92 .在社会峰会的官方文件中,关于人类发展的论述少得惊人。

【28】由埃及代表提出的观点,强调落实捐助国物资资助与减轻债务的许诺。

【29】参见前任加拿大外长劳埃德·艾克斯沃西(Lloyd Axworthy)对于罗布·麦凯与唐·休波特的报告《人类安全与新外交:保护人类,推进和平》(Human Security and the New Diplomacy:Protecting people,Promoting Peace)的评论。(Montreal and Kingston:McGill-Queen’s University Press,2001),4 .

【30】举一个明显的例子,据报道,劳埃德·艾克斯沃西以人类资源发展部部长身份代表加拿大出席峰会时首次遇到人的安全问题、私人电子邮件通信问题。艾克斯沃西指出峰会是“延伸到更广泛的国际舞台上的人的安全概念的转折点”。Lloyd Axworthy,Navigating a New World:Canada’s Global Future(Toronto:Alfred A .Knopf Canada,2003),41 .

【31】 General Assembly Document A/59/565,2 December 2004,available online at:http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/No4/602/31/PDF/N0460231.pdf?Open Element.

【32】 George W.Bush,“Remarks by the President at United Nations Financing for Develop-ment Conference,”Monterrey,Mexico,22 March 2002,1,available online at:http://www.white-house.gov/news/releases/2002/03/20020322-1.html,accessed 24 October 2004.

【33】 These mechanisms are the focus of Chapter VI of the UN Charter .See also Boutros-Ghali,An Agenda for Peace:Preventive Diplomacy,Peacemaking and Peace-keeping,paras .23-33 .

【34】 Ibid .,para .26 .

【35】 UNDP,Human Development Report 1993:People’s Participation,3 .

【36】 AnAgenda for Development:Reportof the Secretary-General(General Assem-bly document A/48/935),6 May 1994,paras .17-18,available online at:http://www.un.org/Docs/SG/agdev.html,accessed 24 October 2004.

【37】 Edward J .Laurence,Light Weapons and Intrastate Conflict(New York:Carne-gie Corporation,1998);and Jeffrey Boutwell and Michael Klare,Light Weapons and Civil Conflict:Controlling the Tools of Violence(Lanham,Md .:Rowman Littlefield,1999).

【38】 Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict,Preventing Deadly Conf lict:Final Report(New York:Carnegie Corporation,1997),xviii-xix,xxii-xxiii,and 82-89 .

【39】在全球治理委员会中有关于结构性冲突的原因的类似讨论:Our Global Neigh-borhood,95-97 .

【40】 The Causes of Conflict and Promotion of Durable Peace and Sustainable Devel-opmentinAfrica:Reportof theSecretary-General(GeneralAssemblydocumentA/52/871 and Security Council document S/1998/318),13 April 1998,available online at:http://www.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo/afrec/sgreport/main.htm,accessed 24 October 2004.

【41】 Ibid .,para .2 .

【42】 Ibid .,paras .15,79-80 .

【43】 Ibid .,paras .80-83 .

【44】 Ibid .,paras .85-89 .

【45】 Ibid .,paras .93-99 .

【46】 UN General Assembly,Declaration and Programme of Action on a Culture of Peace(General Assembly document A/53/243),13 September 1999,available online at:ht-tp://www .unesco .org/cpp/uk/declarations/2000 .htm,accessed 25 October 2004 .

【47】 StatementbythePresidentoftheSecurityCouncil:TheSituationinAfrica(Se-curity Council document S/PRST/1998/28),16 September 1998;Statement by the President of the Security Council:The Situation in A frica(Security Council document S/PRST/1998/29),24 September 1998;Security Council resolution 1209,19 November 1998 .

【48】 Security Council resolution 1170,28 May 1998 .为本决议设立的工作组于1998年9月提交了报告,体现了关于合作的安排、支持区域和次区域组织以及武器禁运的效力得到了加强。Security Council resolutions 1196 and 1197,16 and 19 September 1998 .

【49】 Statement by the President o f the Security Council(Security Council document S/PRST/1999/34),30 November 1999 .

【50】诉诸经济和社会理事会的手段反映了经济和发展问题被普遍认为在其职权范围之内,理事会同时监督大多数机构将执行预防冲突方面的发展事实。联合国在安全方面的职责分工,代表了一个模糊的体制,因此,安全这个术语的内涵扩大到了经济问题。

【51】 Statement by the President o f the Security Council:Role o f the Security Council inthePreventionof ArmedConflicts(SecurityCouncildocumentS/PRST/2000/25),20Ju-ly 2000 .See also Statement of the President of the Security Council(Security Council docu-ment S/PRST/2001/5),20 February 2001 .

【52】 Preventionof Armed Conflict:Report of the Secretary General(General As-sembly document A/55/985 and Security Council document S/2001/574),7 June 2001 .

【53】 Ibid .,paras .7-10 .

【54】 Ibid .,para .100 .

【55】 Kofi Annan,We the Peoples:The Role of the United Nations in the 21st Century(New York:United Nations,2000),19 .

【56】高级别小组的报告认为欠发达是冲突根源,并将它列入综合的防止冲突计划。A More Secure World:Our Shared Responsibility(General Assembly document A/59/565),2 December 2004,12,25-30 .

【57】 Ibid .,24-31 .

【58】 Regeringskanliet,Preventing Violent Conflict— A Swedish Action Plan(Stock-holm:Regeringskanliet,1999),14,38,41-42,68 .See also Ministry of Foreign Affairs,Pre-venting Violent Conflict(Stockholm:Ministry of Foreign Affairs,1997),9 .

【59】 See SIDA,“The Funds Were Allocated This Way in 2002—Sectors,”available online at:http://www.sida.se/Sida/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=3168a=22948,accessed 24 Oc-tober 2004.

【60】有两个跨部门冲突的预防机构,一个是全球性的,一个是非洲的。这两个机构在2001年至2004年募集了6亿英镑。See Greg Austin,Emery Brusset,Malcolm Chalmers,and Juliet Pierce,Evaluationof the Conflict Prevention Pools:Synthesis Report,Evalua-tion Report /EV 647(London:Department for International Development,2004),2,available online at:http://www.dfid.gov.uk/aboutdfid/performance files/ev647synthesis.pdf,ac-cessed 24 October 2004.

【61】 European Commission,“Communication from the Commission on Conflict Pre-vention,”11 April 2001,4,5,9,12,available online at:http://www.eu2001.se/static/eng/pdf/violent.pdf,accessed 24 October 2004.See also the“EU Programme for the Prevention of Violent Conflict,”available online at:http://www.eu.int/comm/external_relations/cfsp/news/com2001_211_en.pdf,accessed 24 October 2004.该议程在哥德堡欧洲理事会通过,确定了一个主流的外交政策和发展预防冲突的活动,提供了定期监测和后续行动。Brussels,Belgium,12 December 2003,2,available online at:http://ue.eu.int/uedocs/cmsUpload/78367.pdf,accessed 24 October 2004.

【62】”European Security Strategy,A Secure Europe in a Better World,”2,10 .值得一提的是,理事会将人身安全列为发展的先决条件。

【63】 Frank Columbus,ed .,The National Security Strategy of the United States of A merica(Hauppauge,N .Y .:Novinka Books,2003),Chapters Ⅲ and Ⅳ,available online at:http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss.html,accessed 24 October 2004.

【64】 Bush,“Remarks by the President at United Nations Financing for Development Conference”;and Bush,“Remarks by the President on Global Development,”Inter-Amer-ican Development Bank,Washington,D .C .,14 March 2002,available online at:http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/03/20020314-7.html,accessed 13 May 2005.

【65】 USAID,Foreign Aid in the National Interest(Washington,D .C .:USAID,2003),Chapter 4,available online at:http://www.usaid.gov/fani/cho4/understandingcon-flict.htm,accessed 24 October 2004.See also USAID,Strategic Plan,Fiscal Years 2004-2009:Aligning Diplomacy and Development Assistance(Washington,D.C.:U.S.State Department,2003),6,18,available online at:http://www.usaid.gov/policy/budget/state_usaid_strat_plan.pdf,accessed 24 October 2004.该文件指出,经济机会不平等和被忽视的社会经济能力与薄弱或失败的国家结构相结合,为恐怖活动和冲突提供了温床,并强调了促进可持续发展在反恐战争中取得成功的重要性。

【66】 African Union,Protocol Relating to the Establishment of a Peace and Security Council,9 July 2002,Article 4(d).See also the Lomé Declaration’s recognition that development is a prerequi-site for peace and security .Assembly of Heads of State and Government(AU),36th Ordinary Session,Lomé Declaration,AHG/Decl.2(XXXVI),12 July 2000,2,available online at:http://www.uneca.org/itca/ariportal/lome.htm,accessed 24 October 2004.

【67】 Assembly of Heads of State and Government(OAU),CSSDCA Solemn Declara-tion,AHG/Decl .4(XXXVI),12 July 2000,1,available online at:http://www.africa-union.org/Special_Programs/CSSDCA/cssdca-solemndeclaration.pdf,accessed 24 October 2004.

【68】 Ibid .,5-6 .

【69】 See Peter Uvin,Aiding Violence:The Development Enterprise in Rwanda(West Hartford,Conn .:Kumarian Press,1998);Anton Barré,David Shearer,and Peter Uvin,The Limits and Scope for the Use of Development Assistance Incentives and Disincen-tives for Influencing Conflict Situations— Case Study:Rwanda(Paris:OECD,1999),35 .

【70】关于该类事件有影响力的处理方式,可参见Mary Anderson,Do No Harm:How Aid Can Support Peace— or War(Boulder,Colo .:Lynne Rienner Publisher,1999);对于捐助的代表性政策文件,可参见OECD Development Assistance Committee,“Policy State-ment:Conflict,Peace,and Development Cooperation on the Threshold of the 21st Century,”May 1997,available online at:http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/31/3912755375.pdf,access-ed 26 October 2004。

【71】 See Kaoru Ishikawa,“A New Japanese Approach to Nation-Building:People-Centered Human Security,”in External Factors for Asian Development,edited by Hiroshi Kohama(Singa-pore:ASEAN Foundation and Japan Institute of International Affairs,2003),212 .

【72】 Amartya Sen,Development as Freedom(Oxford:Oxford University Press,1999).

【73】这一点可以追溯到他早先关于饥荒和治理之间关系的著作,森指出,在民主的政治制度中没有饥荒。See Jean Drèze,Amartya Sen,and Athar Hussain,eds .,The Political Economy of Hunger:Selected Essays(Oxford:Oxford University Press,1999).

【74】 Sen,Development as Freedom,184-188,quote on 188 .

【75】 See Statement by Foreign Minister Keizo Obuchi on Japan and East Asia:Out-look for the New Millennium,4 May 1998,available online at:http://www.mofa.go.jp/an-nounce/announce/1998/5/980504.html.

【76】 The Trust Fund for Human Security,For the“Human-Centred”21st Century(Tokyo:Ministry of Foreign Affairs,n .d .),available online at:http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/human_secu/t_fund21/t_fund21.pdf,accessed 4 November 2004.

【77】 Ibid .

【78】 Ibid .

【79】在项目区的名单中的七个活动之一是“保护冲突下的,遭受暴力、歧视的人,而他们大多来自贫困地区,遭受不平等待遇”。然而,对那些附加资助活动完整清单的项目没有一个属于这一类。Ibid.

【80】 Ishikawa,“A New Japanese Approach to Nation-Building,”220 .

【81】 Ibid .,233 .

【82】事实上,日本没有参加人的安全网络,在该委员会报告的编写阶段,不存在与人类安全委员会、挪威和加拿大政府的实质性对话。人的安全网络的内部成员没有资助该组织,这显示了支持人的安全理念群体内部意见的分歧。

【83】 Commission on Human Security,Human Security Now,4-12 .

【84】 Ibid .4 .

【85】人的安全网络组织外的特派员作出的评论更能反映实际情况。参见Sadako Ogata,Statement to the Third Tokyo International Conference on A frican Development(TICAD III),To-kyo,Japan,29 September 2003,2:“我认为现有国际合作机制不足以应对挑战。我严重质疑我们作出的一些假设,如国家和国家主权的首要地位,现有的国际机制是否仍然够资格。”考虑到日本对于邻国情感的敏感性,绪芳·贞子的说法没有在东京非洲发展国际会议的网站上被引用也不足为奇。Third Tokyo International Conference on African Development,available online at:http://www.ticad.net/speeches.html,accessed 10 November 2004.

【86】 Commission on Human Security,Human Security Now,iv .

【87】 Permanent Court of International Justice,“Advisory Opinion:Nationality De-crees Issued in Tunis and Morocco(French Zone)on November 8,1921,”PCIJ Series B,No .4,7 February 1923,16 .

【88】 Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade,Freedom f rom Fear:Canada’s Foreign Policy for Human Security(Ottawa:Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade,2000),3,available online at:http://www.humansecurity.gc.ca/free-dom_from_fear-en.asp,accessed 19 November 2004.

【89】 Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade,Human Security:Safety for People in a Changing World(Ottawa:Government of Canada,April 1999),3 .对联合国开发计划署拓展“人的安全”概念的批评与马哈伯·乌尔·哈克对那种将所有方面都纳入人类发展指数的努力所提出的批评颇为相似,这一点既显而易见,又具讽刺意味。

【90】 Ibid .,7 .欧盟的安全战略文件承认,“安全是发展的前提”。European Union,A Secure Europe in a Better World(Brussels:EU,2003),2 .

【91】 Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade,Freedom f rom Fear:Canada’s Foreign Policy f or H uman Security .

【92】关于政府如何威胁人的安全的评论,可参见科菲·安南著作前言。UNHCR The State of the World’sRefugees 1997-1998:A Humanitarian Agenda(Oxford:Oxford Uni-versity Press,1997),ix .关于国家的不作为,可参见Rob McRae and Don Hubert,eds .,Human Security and the New Diplomacy:Protecting People,Promoting Peace(Montreal and Kingston:McGill-Queen’s University Press,2001),19-20;还可参见干预与国家主权委员会的总结性报告:The Responsibility to Protect(Ottawa:International Development Research Centre,2001),4 .联合国难民事务高级专员绪芳·贞子的观点可参见“Globaliza-tion and Human Security,”Weatherhead Policy Forum,Columbia University,27 March 2002,1,available online at:http://www.humansecurity-chs.org/activities/outreach/co-lumbia.html(accessed 13 March 2005);关于委员会的评论,可参见Human Security Now(New York:Commission on Human Security,2003),2。

【93】 Commission on Global Governance,Our Global Neighborhood(Oxford:Oxford University Press,1995),92 .

【94】在这一问题上,南罗德西亚(津巴布韦旧称)是一个例外,当时英国动用海军迫使反对武装力量无法使用其殖民地莫桑比克的港口。

【95】 Security Council Resolution 688,5 April 1991 .

【96】关于伊拉克危机在此事件中的作用以及本概念发展的深入分析,可参见Margaret Jane Hoverd,“Humanitarian Action in Bosnia:A Study of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,1991-1999”(D .Phil .Thesis,Oxford University,2001).

【97】 Security Council Resolution 733,23 January 1992 .

【98】 Security Council Resolution 794,3 December 1992 .

【99】 Security Council Resolution 814,26 March 1993 .

【100】关于索马里维和行动,可参见Jane Boulden,Peace Enforcement:The United Nations Experience in Congo,Somalia,and Bosnia(Westport,Conn .:Praeger Publish-ing,2001),51-82 .