The Principles of Newspeak
Newspeak was the official language of Oceania and had been devised to meet the ideological needs of Ingsoc,or English Social-ism.In the year 1984 there was not as yet anyone who used New-speak as his sole means of communication,either in speech or writ-ing.The leading articles in the Times were written in it,but this was a tour de force which could only be carried out by a specialist.It was expected that Newspeak would have finally superseded Old-speak (or Standard English,as we should call it) by about the year 2050.Meanwhile it gained ground steadily,all Party members tend-ing to use Newspeak words and grammatical constructions more and more in their everyday speech.The version in use in 1984,and embodied in the Ninth and Tenth Editions of the Newspeak diction-ary,was a provisional one,and contained many superfluous words and archaic formations which were due to be suppressed later.It is with the final,perfected version,as embodied in the Eleventh Edi-tion of the dictionary,that we are concerned here.
The purpose of Newspeak was not only to provide a medium of expression for the world-view and mental habits proper to the devo-tees of Ingsoc,but to make all other modes of thought impossible.It was intended that when Newspeak had been adopted once and for all and Oldspeak forgotten,a heretical thought—that is,a thought diverging from the principles of Ingsoc—should be literally un-thinkable,at least so far as thought is dependent on words.Its vo-cabulary was so constructed as to give exact and often very subtle expression to every meaning that a Party member could properly wish to express,while excluding all other meanings and also the possibility of arriving at them by indirect methods.This was done partly by the invention of new words,but chiefly by eliminating un-desirable words and by stripping such words as remained of unor-thodox meanings,and so far as possible of all secondary meanings whatever.To give a single example.The word free still existed in Newspeak,but it could only be used in such statements as"This dog is free from lice"or"This field is free from weeds".It could not be used in its old sense of"politically free"or"intellectually free"since political and intellectual ******* no longer existed even as concepts,and were therefore of necessity nameless.Quite apart from the suppression of definitely heretical words,reduction of vocabula-ry was regarded as an end in itself,and no word that could be dis-pensed with was allowed to survive.Newspeak was designed not to extend but to diminish the range of thought,and this purpose was indirectly assisted by cutting the choice of words down to a mini-mum.
Newspeak was founded on the English language as we now know it,though many Newspeak sentences,even when not contai-ning newly created words,would be barely intelligible to an Eng-lish-speaker of our own day.Newspeak words were divided into three distinct classes,known as the A vocabulary,the B vocabulary (also called compound words),and the C vocabulary.It will be sim-pler to discuss each class separately,but the grammatical peculiari-ties of the language can be dealt with in the section devoted to the A vocabulary,since the same rules held good for all three catego ries.
The A Vocabulary
The A vocabulary consisted of the words needed for the busi-ness of everyday life—for such things as eating,drinking,working, putting on one's clothes,going up and down stairs,riding in vehi-cles,gardening,cooking,and the like.It was composed almost en-tirely of words that we already possess words like hit,run,dog, tree,sugar,house,field—but in comparison with the present-day English vocabulary their number was extremely small,while their meanings were far more rigidly defined.All ambiguities and shades of meaning had been purged out of them.So far as it could be a-chieved,a Newspeak word of this class was simply a staccato sound expressing one clearly understood concept.It would have been quite impossible to use the A vocabulary for literary purposes or for po-litical or philosophical discussion.It was intended only to express ******,purposive thoughts,usually involving concrete obj ects or physical actions.
The grammar of Newspeak had two outstanding peculiarities. The first of these was an almost complete interchangeability be-tween different parts of speech.Any word in the language (in prin-ciple this applied even to very abstract words such as if or when) could be used either as verb,noun,adj ective,or adverb.Between the verb and the noun form,when they were of the same root,there was never any variation,this rule of itself involving the destruction of many archaic forms.The word thought,for example,did not exist in Newspeak.Its place was taken by think,which did duty for both noun and verb.No etymological principle was followed here;in some cases it was the original noun that was chosen for retention,in other cases the verb.Even where a noun and verb of kindred meaning were not etymologically connected,one or other of them was fre quently suppressed.There was,for example,no such word as cut,its meaning being sufficiently covered by the noun-verb knife.Adj ec-tives were formed by adding the suffix-ful to the noun-verb,and adverbs by adding-wise.Thus, for example,speedful meant"rap-id"and speedwise meant"quickly".Certain of our present-day ad-j ectives,such as good,strong,big,black,soft,were retained,but their total number was very small.There was little need for them, since almost any adj ectival meaning could be arrived at by adding-ful to a noun-verb.None of the now-existing adverbs was retained, except for a very few already ending in-wise;the-wise termination was invariable.The word well,for example,was replaced by good-wise.
In addition,any word—this again applied in principle to every word in the language—could be negatived by adding the affix un-, or could be strengthened by the affix p lus-,or,for still greater em-phasis,doubleplus-.Thus,for example,uncold meant"warm", while pluscold and doublepluscold meant,respectively,"very cold"and"superlatively cold".It was also possible,as in present-day Eng-lish,to modify the meaning of almost any word by prepositional aff-fixes such as ante-,post-,up-,down-,etc.By such methods it was found possible to bring about an enormous diminution of vocabula-ry.Given,for instance,the word good,there was no need for such a word as bad,since the required meaning was equally well—indeed, better—expressed by ungood.All that was necessary,in any case where two words formed a natural pair of opposites,was to decide which of them to suppress.Dark,for example,could be replaced by unlight,or light by undark,according to preference.
The second distinguishing mark of Newspeak grammar was its regularity.Subj ect to a few exceptions which are mentioned below all inflexions followed the same rules.Thus,in all verbs the preter-ite and the past participle were the same and ended in-ed.The pret-erite of steal was stealed,the preterite of think was thinked,and so on throughout the language, all such forms as swam, gave, brought,spoke,taken,etc.,being abolished.All plurals were made by adding-s or-es as the case might be.The plurals of man,ox, life were mans,oxes,lifes.Comparison of adj ectives was invariably made by adding-er,-est (good,gooder,goodest),irregular forms and the more,most formation being suppressed.
The only classes of words that were still allowed to inflect ir-regularly were the pronouns,the relatives,the demonstrative adj ec-tives,and the auxiliary verbs.All of these followed their ancient us-age,except that whom had been scrapped as unnecessary,and the shall,should tenses had been dropped,all their uses being covered by will and would.There were also certain irregularities in word-formation arising out of the need for rapid and easy speech.A word which was difficult to utter,or was liable to be incorrectly heard, was held to be ipso facto a bad word;occasionally therefore,for the sake of euphony,extra letters were inserted into a word or an archa-ic formation was retained.But this need made itself felt chiefly in connexion with the B vocabulary.Wh y so great an importance was attached to ease of pronunciation will be made clear later in this es-say.
The B Vocabulary
The B vocabulary consisted of words which had been deliber-ately constructed for political purposes:words,that is to say,which not only had in every case a political implication,but were intended to impose a desirable mental attitude upon the person using them. Without a full understanding of the principles of Ingsoc it was diffi-cult to use these words correctly.In some cases they could be trans lated into Oldspeak,or even into words taken from the A vocabula-ry,but this usually demanded a long paraphrase and always in-volved the loss of certain overtones.The B words were a sort of ver-bal shorthand,often packing whole ranges of ideas into a few sylla-bles,and at the same time more accurate and forcible than ordinary language.
The B words were in all cases compound words.[Compound words such as speakwrite,were of course to be found in the A vo-cabulary,but these were merely convenient abbreviations and had no special ideological color.] They consisted of two or more words, or portions of words,welded together in an easily pronounceable form.The resulting amalgam was always a noun-verb,and inflected according to the ordinary rules.To take a single example:the word goodthink,meaning,very roughly,"orthodoxy",or,if one chose to regard it as a verb,"to think in an orthodox manner".This inflected as follows:noun-verb,goodthink;past tense and past participle, goodthinked;present participle,goodthinking;adj ective,goodthi-nkful;adverb,goodthinkwise;verbal noun,goodthinker.
The B words were not constructed on any etymological plan. The words of which they were made up could be any parts of speech,and could be placed in any order and mutilated in any way which made them easy to pronounce while indicating their deriva-tion.In the word crimethink (thoughtcrime),for instance,the think came second,whereas in thinkpol (Thought Police) it came first, and in the latter word police had lost its second syllable.Because of the great difficulty in securing euphony,irregular formations were commoner in the B vocabulary than in the A vocabulary.For exam-ple,the adj ective forms of Minitrue,Minipax,and Miniluv were, respectively,Minitruthful,Minipeaceful,and Minilovely,simply because-trueful,-paxful,and-loveful were slightly awkward to pronounce.In principle,however,all B words could inflect,and all inflected in exactly the same way.
Some of the B words had highly subtilized meanings,barely in-telligible to anyone who had not mastered the language as a whole. Consider,for example,such a typical sentence from a Times leading article as Oldthinkers unbellyfeel Ingsoc.The shortest rendering that one could make of this in Oldspeak would be:"Those whose i-deas were formed before the Revolution cannot have a full emotion-al understanding of the principles of English Socialism."But this is not an adequate translation.To begin with,in order to grasp the full meaning of the Newspeak sentence quoted above,one would have to have a clear idea of what is meant by Ingsoc.And in addition,only a person thoroughly grounded in Ingsoc could appreciate the full force of the word bellyfeel,which implied a blind,enthusiastic ac-ceptance difficult to imagine today;or of the word oldthink,which was inextricably mixed up with the idea of wickedness and deca-dence.But the special function of certain Newspeak words,of which oldthink was one,was not so much to express meanings as to de-stroy them.These words,necessarily few in number,had had their meanings extended until they contained within themselves whole batteries of words which,as they were sufficiently covered by a sin-gle comprehensive term,could now be scrapped and forgotten.The greatest difficulty facing the compilers of the Newspeak dictionary was not to invent new words,but,having invented them,to make sure what they meant:to make sure,that is to say,what ranges of words they cancelled by their existence.
As we have already seen in the case of the word free,words which had once borne a heretical meaning were sometimes retained for the sake of convenience,but only with the undesirable meanings purged out of them.Countless other words such as honour,justice,morality,internationalism,democracy,science,and religion had simply ceased to exist.A few blanket words covered them,and,in covering them, abolished them.All words grouping themselves round the concepts of liberty and equality,for instance,were con-tained in the single word crimethink,while all words grouping themselves round the concepts of obj ectivity and rationalism were contained in the single word oldthink.Greater precision would have been dangerous.What was required in a Party member was an out-look similar to that of the ancient Hebrew who knew,without knowing much else,that all nations other than his own worshipped"false gods."He did not need to know that these gods were called Baal,Osiris,Moloch,Ashtaroth,and the like;probably the less he knew about them the better for his orthodoxy.He knew Jehovah and the commandments of Jehovah;he knew,therefore,that all gods with other names or other attributes were false gods.In some-what the same way,the party member knew what constituted right conduct,and in exceedingly vague,generalized terms he knew what kinds of departure from it were possible.His sexual life,for exam-ple,was entirely regulated by the two Newspeak words ***crime (sexual immorality) and goodsex (chastity).Sexcrime covered all sexual misdeeds whatever.It covered fornication,*****ery,homo-sexuality,and other perversions,and,in addition,normal inter-course practised for its own sake.There was no need to enumerate them separately,since they were all equally culpable,and,in princi-ple,all punishable by death.In the C vocabulary,which consisted of scientific and technical words,it might be necessary to give special-ized names to certain sexual aberrations,but the ordinary citizen had no need of them.He knew what was meant by goodsex—that is to say,normal intercourse between man and wife,for the sole pur-pose of begetting children,and without physical pleasure on the part of the woman;all else was ***crime.In Newspeak it was sel dom possible to follow a heretical thought further than the percep-tion that it was heretical;beyond that point the necessary words were nonexistent.
No word in the B vocabulary was ideologically neutral.A great many were euphemisms.Such words,for instance,as j oycamp (forced-labor camp) or Minipax (Ministry of Peace,i.e.,Ministry of War) meant almost the exact opposite of what they appeared to mean.Some words,on the other hand,displayed a frank and con-temptuous understanding of the real nature of Oceanic society.An example was prolefeed,meaning the rubbishy entertainment and spurious news which the Party handed out to the masses.Other words,again,were ambivalent,having the connotation"good"when applied to the Party and"bad"when applied to its enemies.But in addition there were great numbers of words which at first sight ap-peared to be mere abbreviations and which derived their ideological color not from their meaning but from their structure.
So far as it could be contrived,everything that had or might have political significance of any kind was fitted into the B vocabu-lary.The name of every organization,or body of people,or doctrine, or country,or institution,or public building,was invariably cut down into the familiar shape;that is,a single easily pronounced word with the smallest number of syllables that would preserve the original derivation.In the Ministry of Truth,for example,the Re-cords Department,in which Winston Smith worked,was called Rec-dep,the Fiction Department was called Ficdep,the Teleprograms Department was called Teledep,and so on.This was not done solely with the obj ect of saving time.Even in the early decades of the twentieth century,telescoped words and phrases had been one of the characteristic features of political language;and it had been no-ticed that the tendency to use abbreviations of this kind was most marked in totalitarian countries and totalitarian organizations.Ex-amples were such words as Nazi,Gestapo,Comintern,Inprecorr, Agitprop.In the beginning the practice had been adopted as it were instinctively,but in Newspeak it was used with a conscious pur-pose.It was perceived that in thus abbreviating a name one nar-rowed and subtly altered its meaning,by cutting out most of the as-sociations that would otherwise cling to it.The words Communist International,for instance,call up a composite picture of universal human brotherhood,red flags,barricades,Karl Marx,and the Paris Commune.The word Comintern,on the other hand,suggests merely a tightly knit organization and a well-defined body of doctrine.It re-fers to something almost as easily recognized,and as limited in pur-pose,as a chair or a table.Comintern is a word that can be uttered almost without taking thought,whereas communist international is a phrase over which one is obliged to linger at least momentarily.In the same way,the associations called up by a word like Minitrue are fewer and more controllable than those called up by Ministry of Truth.This accounted not only for the habit of abbreviating when-ever possible,but also for the almost exaggerated care that was taken to make every word easily pronounceable.
In Newspeak,euphony outweighed every consideration other than exactitude of meaning.Regularity of grammar was always sac-rificed to it when it seemed necessary.And rightly so,since what was required,above all for political purposes,was short clipped words of unmistakable meaning which could be uttered rapidly and which roused the minimum of echoes in the speaker's mind.The words of the B vocabulary even gained in force from the fact that nearly all of them were very much alike.Almost invariably these words—goodthink,Minipax,prolefeed,***crime,j oycamp,Ing-soc,bellyfeel,thinkpol,and countless others—were words of two or three syllables,with the stress distributed equally between the first syllable and the last.The use of them encouraged a gabbling style of speech,at once staccato and monotonous.And this was ex-actly what was aimed at.The intention was to make speech,and es-pecially speech on any subj ect not ideologically neutral,as nearly as possible independent of consciousness.For the purposes of everyday life it was no doubt necessary,or sometimes necessary,to reflect before speaking,but a Party member called upon to make a political or ethical j udgement should be able to spray forth the correct opin-ions as automatically as a machine gun spraying forth bullets.His training fitted him to do this,the language gave him an almost fool-proof instrument,and the texture of the words,with their harsh sound and a certain wilful ugliness which was in accord with the spirit of Ingsoc,assisted the process still further.
So did the fact of having very few words to choose from.Rela-tive to our own,the Newspeak vocabulary was tiny,and new ways of reducing it were constantly being devised.Newspeak,indeed,dif-fered from most all other languages in that its vocabulary grew smaller instead of larger every year.Each reduction was a gain,since the smaller the area of choice,the smaller the temptation to take thought.Ultimately it was hoped to make articulate speech issue from the larynx without involving the higher brain centers at all. This aim was frankly admitted in the Newspeak word duckspeak, meaning"to quack like a duck".Like various other words in the B vocabulary,duckspeak was ambivalent in meaning.Provided that the opinions which were quacked out were orthodox ones,it implied nothing but praise,and when the Times referred to one of the ora-tors of the Party as a doubleplusgood duckspeaker it was paying a warm and valued compliment.
The C Vocabulary
The C vocabulary was supplementary to the others and consis-ted entirely of scientific and technical terms.These resembled the scientific terms in use today,and were constructed from the same roots,but the usual care was taken to define them rigidly and strip them of undesirable meanings.They followed the same grammatical rules as the words in the other two vocabularies.Very few of the C words had any currency either in everyday speech or in political speech.Any scientific worker or technician could find all the words he needed in the list devoted to his own speciality,but he seldom had more than a smattering of the words occurring in the other lists.Only a very few words were common to all lists,and there was no vocabulary expressing the function of Science as a habit of mind, or a method of thought,irrespective of its particular branches.There was,indeed,no word for"Science",any meaning that it could possi-bly bear being already sufficiently covered by the word Ingsoc.
From the foregoing account it will be seen that in Newspeak the expression of unorthodox opinions,above a very low level,was well-nigh impossible.It was of course possible to utter heresies of a very crude kind,a species of blasphemy.It would have been possi-ble,for example,to say Big brother is ungood.But this statement, which to an orthodox ear merely conveyed a self-evident absurdity, could not have been sustained by reasoned argument,because the necessary words were not available.Ideas inimical to Ingsoc could only be entertained in a vague wordless form,and could only be named in very broad terms which lumped together and condemned whole groups of heresies without defining them in doing so.One could,in fact,only use Newspeak for unorthodox purposes by ille-gitimately translating some of the words back into Oldspeak.For example,All mans are equal was a possible Newspeak sentence,but only in the same sense in which All men are redhaired is a pos-sible Oldspeak sentence.It did not contain a grammatical error,but it expressed a palpable untruth,i.e.,that all men are of equal size, weight,or strength.The concept of political equality no longer exis-ted,and this secondary meaning had accordingly been purged out of the word equal.In 1984,when Oldspeak was still the normal means of communication,the danger theoretically existed that in using Newspeak words one might remember their original meanings.In practice it was not difficult for any person well grounded in double-think to avoid doing this,but within a couple of generations even the possibility of such a lapse would have vanished.A person grow-ing up with Newspeak as his sole language would no more know that equal had once had the secondary meaning of"politically e-qual",or that free had once meant"intellectually free",than for in-stance,a person who had never heard of chess would be aware of the secondary meanings attaching to queen and rook.There would be many crimes and errors which it would be beyond his power to commit,simply because they were nameless and therefore unimag-inable.And it was to be foreseen that with the passage of time the distinguishing characteristics of Newspeak would become more and more pronounced—its words growing fewer and fewer,their mean-ings more and more rigid,and the chance of putting them to im-proper uses always diminishing.
When Oldspeak had been once and for all superseded,the last link with the past would have been severed.History had already been rewritten,but fragments of the literature of the past survived here and there,imperfectly censored,and so long as one retained one's knowledge of Oldspeak it was possible to read them.In the future such fragments,even if they chanced to survive,would be unintelligible and untranslatable.It was impossible to translate any passage of Oldspeak into Newspeak unless it either referred to some technical process or some very ****** everyday action,or was already orthodox (goodthinkful would be the Newspeak expres-sion)in tendency.In practice this meant that no book written before approximately 1960 could be translated as a whole.Prerevolutionary literature could only be subj ected to ideological translation—that is,alteration in sense as well as language.Take for example the well-known passage from the Declaration of Independence:
We hold these truths to be self-evident,that all men are crea-ted equal,that they are endowed by their creator with certain inal-ienable rights,that among these are life,liberty,and the pursuit of happiness.That to secure these rights,Governments are institu-ted among men,deriving their powers from the consent of the gov-erned.That whenever any form of Government becomes destructive of those ends,it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it,and to institute new Government...
It would have been quite impossible to render this into New-speak while keeping to the sense of the original.The nearest one could come to doing so would be to swallow the whole passage up in the single word crimethink.A full translation could only be an i-deological translation,whereby Jefferson's words would be changed into a panegyric on absolute government.
A good deal of the literature of the past was,indeed,already being transformed in this way.Considerations of prestige made it desirable to preserve the memory of certain historical figures,while at the same time bringing their achievements into line with the phi-losophy of Ingsoc.Various writers,such as Shakespeare,Milton, Swift,Byron,Dickens,and some others were therefore in process of translation; when the task had been completed,their original writ-ings,with all else that survived of the literature of the past,would be destroyed.These translations were a slow and difficult business, and it was not expected that they would be finished before the first or second decade of the twenty-first century.There were also large quantities of merely utilitarian literature—indispensable technical manuals and the like—that had to be treated in the same way.It was chiefly in order to allow time for the preliminary work of transla-tion that the final adoption of Newspeak had been fixed for so late a date as 2050.